@article {barbosa_self-incompatibility_2009,
	title = {Self-incompatibility and myophily in Octomeria (Orchidaceae, Pleurothallidinae) species},
	journal = {Plant Systematics and Evolution},
	volume = {283},
	year = {2009},
	pages = {1{\textendash}8},
	abstract = {Pleurothallidinae (ca. 4,000 spp.) is the largest myophilous group in Orchidaceae. Recently three self-compatible bird-pollinated genera were included at the base of the group, while Octomeria (plus Brachionidium ) is the sister group to the remaining subtribe in the former circumscription. Studies of reproductive biology of three Octomeria species were carried out to determine the occurrence of myophily and self-incompatibility in the genus, to help trace the evolution of these characteristics in the subtribe. The three species showed a strong self-incompatibility and are intercompatible. Octomeria crassifolia and O. grandiflora are pollinated by Sciaridae (Diptera) species, presenting high specificity. These results indicate that both self-incompatibility and myophily are basal characteristics in the former delimitation of the Pleurothallidinae and possibly have been kept in the derived lineages, representing biological synapomorphies of the group.},
	keywords = {Mating systems, Myophily, Orchidaceae, Pleurothallidinae, Pollination, Self-incompatibility},
	issn = {0378-2697},
	doi = {10.1007/s00606-009-0212-6},
	url = {http://www.springerlink.com/content/h167mg18462q6hj0/abstract/},
	author = {Barbosa, Ariane Raquel and de Melo, Marcos Cabral and Borba, Eduardo Leite}
}
@article {45861,
	title = {Pseudocopulatory Pollination in Lepanthes (Orchidaceae: Pleurothallidinae) by Fungus Gnats},
	journal = {Annals of Botany},
	volume = {95},
	year = {2005},
	pages = {763{\textendash}772},
	abstract = {{\textbullet} Background and Aims:  Lepanthes is one of the largest angiosperm genera (>800 species). Their non-rewarding, tiny and colourful flowers are structurally complex. Their pollination mechanism has hitherto remained unknown, but has been subject of ample speculation; the function of the minuscule labellum appendix is especially puzzling. Here, the pollination of L. glicensteinii by sexually deceived male fungus gnats is described and illustrated.

{\textbullet} Methods:  Visitors to flowers of L. glicensteinii were photographed and their behaviour documented; some were captured for identification. Occasional visits to flowers of L. helleri, L. stenorhyncha and L. turialvae were also observed. Structural features of flowers and pollinators were studied with SEM.

{\textbullet} Key Results:  Sexually aroused males of the fungus gnat Bradysia floribunda (Diptera: Sciaridae) were the only visitors and pollinators of L. glicensteinii. The initial long-distance attractant seems to be olfactory. Upon finding a flower, the fly curls his abdomen under the labellum and grabs the appendix with his genitalic claspers, then dismounts the flower and turns around to face away from it. The pollinarium attaches to his abdomen during this pivoting manoeuvre. Pollinia are deposited on the stigma during a subsequent flower visit. The flies appear to ejaculate during pseudocopulation. The visitors of L. helleri, L. stenorhyncha and L. turialvae are different species of fungus gnats that display a similar behaviour.

{\textbullet} Conclusions:  Lepanthes glicensteinii has genitalic pseudocopulatory pollination, the first case reported outside of the Australian orchid genus Cryptostylis. Since most species of Lepanthes have the same unusual flower structure, it is predicted that pollination by sexual deception is prevalent in the genus. Several morphological and phenological traits in Lepanthes seem well suited for exploiting male fungus gnats as pollinators. Correspondingly, some demographic trends common in Lepanthes are consistent with patterns of male sciarid behaviour. },
	keywords = {Bradysia floribunda, Lepanthes glicensteinii, Lepanthes helleri, Lepanthes stenorhyncha, Lepanthes turialvae, mimicry, Orchidaceae, Pleurothallidinae, Pollination, pseudocopulation, Sciaridae, sexual deception},
	doi = {doi: 10.1093/aob/mci090},
	url = {http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/95/5/763},
	author = {Blanco, Mario A and Barboza, Gabriel}
}
@article {pemberton_biotic_2010,
	title = {Biotic Resource Needs of Specialist Orchid Pollinators},
	journal = {The Botanical Review},
	volume = {76},
	number = {2},
	year = {2010},
	pages = {275{\textendash}292},
	abstract = {Orchid pollinators have highly varied life histories with complex biotic resource requirements, about which we have limited knowledge. Among the specialist orchid pollinators are insect predators and parasitoids with specific prey types such as aphids and subterranean scarab larvae; oligolectic bees that collect pollen from limited sources such as bellflowers; euglossine bees and butterflies that collect particular plant chemicals for reproduction and self defense; oil-collecting bees that provision their brood cells with floral oils from a few plants; bees that collect rare floral resins to construct their nest and brood cells; moths and butterflies that require specific larval host plants; mosquitos and horse flies that need blood; and fungus gnats and carrion flies tied to fungi and dead animals. Loss of critical biotic resources and relationships can reduce the abundance of orchid pollinators and/or their effectiveness. Protection of large, plant rich, pesticide-free orchid habitats is key to conserving essential pollinator resources.},
	keywords = {Conservation, Life Histories, Orchids, Pollination, Resource Needs},
	issn = {0006-8101},
	doi = {10.1007/s12229-010-9047-7},
	author = {Robert W. Pemberton}
}
@article {45014,
	title = {Small arthropods as pollinators in a New Zealand pak choi field trial},
	journal = {New Zealand Plant Protection},
	volume = {62},
	year = {2009},
	pages = {92{\textendash}98},
	abstract = {Brassica seed crops are grown throughout New Zealand and worldwide, and inter-crop and crop-weed contamination through gene flow is a major concern. For Brassica, large arthropods (body length > 3 mm), particularly honey bees, are the most important pollinators and are considered key vectors of pollen. Small arthropods (body length < 3 mm) are also abundant in Brassica crops but their role as pollinators is rarely assessed. Numerous small arthropods (particularly Diptera and Thysanoptera) were recorded within cages surrounding pak choi inflorescences that excluded large arthropods. Inflorescences inside these cages set seed, but seed set was significantly reduced compared with inflorescences in cages that were hand pollinated and uncaged inflorescences. Although the presence of large arthropods significantly increased seed set, the role of small arthropods and wind cannot be excluded in pak choi pollination. Further studies are required to fully determine the role of small arthropods in long distance pollen flow.},
	keywords = {Brassica, exclusion cage, pollen movement, Pollination, small arthropods, thrips},
	issn = {1175-9003 (print), 1179-352X (online)},
	url = {http://www.nzpps.org/journal/abstract.php?paper=620920},
	author = {Walker, M.K. and Howlett, B.G. and McCallum, J.A. and Wallace, A.R. and Teulon, D.A.J.}
}
@article {45013,
	title = {Small flower-visiting arthropods in New Zealand pak choi fields},
	journal = {New Zealand Plant Protection},
	volume = {62},
	year = {2009},
	pages = {86{\textendash}91},
	abstract = {Flower-visiting small arthropods (body length <3 mm) that may vector pollen can be carried via air currents over long distances. Therefore,
assessing their diversity, abundance and distribution within crops is an important step in determining their role in the transfer of pollen between crops and weeds leading to crop contamination. A window trap survey of eight flowering pak choi field trials in the North and South Islands of New Zealand demonstrated that small arthropods, particularly flies and thrips, were highly abundant within all fields, greatly dominating arthropod counts. However, the relative abundance of different taxa could vary substantially. For example, Drosophilidae individuals represented 65.5\% of total arthropod individuals counted in a Pukekohe field and only 7.0\% in a Hastings field. The large representation of small arthropods within flowering fields across New Zealand warrants further investigation of their contribution to pollination and pollen flow.},
	keywords = {Brassica, Diptera, flower visitors, New Zealand, pollen flow, Pollination, seed purity, Thysanoptera, wind},
	issn = {1175-9003 (print), 1179-352X (online)},
	url = {http://www.nzpps.org/journal/abstract.php?paper=620860},
	author = {Howlett, B.G. and Walker, M.K. and McCallum, J.A. and Teulon, D.A.J.}
}
@article {43830,
	title = {Pollination studies of four New Zealand terrestrial orchids and the implication for their conservation},
	journal = {New Zealand Journal of Botany},
	volume = {43},
	year = {2005},
	pages = {467-477},
	abstract = {The New Zealand orchid flora comprises 25 genera and over 100 species. Most of the species are terrestrial and are found throughout the country. Terrestrial orchids are the most threatened group within the family. We studied the pollination ecology of four terrestrial orchids: Gastrodia cunninghamii, Thelymitra longifolia, Pterostylis alobula, and P. patens. Reproduction of these orchids relies on contrasting reproductive strategies. Thelymitra longifolia is predominantly self-pollinated, whereas both Pterostylis species are cross-pollinated and have an absolute dependence on pollinators. Hand-pollination treatments showed T. longifolia, P. alobula, and P. patens to be self-compatible. Results for G. cunninghamii were unclear and need further study. Insect flower visitation is uncommon in these species and was observed only in G. cunninghamii and P. alobula. Aphids were usually found inside the flowers of G. cunninghamii, but the role they may have as pollinators is undetermined. In P. alobula, male fungus gnats of Zygomyia (Mycetophilidae: Diptera) were considered pollinators. Hypotheses on the attraction system(s) used by these greenhood orchids are discussed. These two species are more likely to be affected by disruption of the plant-pollinator mutualism because of the specialist nature of the plant-pollinator interaction.},
	keywords = {Conservation, Diplodium, disruption of mutualisms, Gastrodia, Mycetophilidae, New Zealand, Orchidaceae, Pollination, Pterostylis, sexual deception, shelter flowers, terrestrial orchids, Thelymitra},
	url = {http://www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000_/Lehnebach\&al2005_NZJournBot.pdf},
	author = {Lehnebach, Carlos A. and Robertson, Alastair W. and Hedderley, Duncan}
}
